Egypt

7/1/25

Overview

After briefly flirting with democracy in the aftermath of the 2011 Arab Spring that toppled the authoritarian regime of Hosni Mubarak, Egypt returned to a militarily backed governance under President Abdel Fatah el-Sisi who has ruled the nation since 2014.  Join Active Minds as we explore the history of Egypt and the role it plays in the current Middle East, including its border with Gaza and Israel.

Key Lecture Points

  • Since ancient times Egypt has been ruled centrally without democratic participation, and after the reign of the Pharaohs ended, rule was mostly foreign.  Egypt was conquered and ruled by the Greeks, Romans, Persians, Byzantines, Arabs, Ottomans, French, Mamluks, and finally the British from 1882-1952.  Until the British, Islam was the imperial religion, practiced by Egypt’s conquerors (Persians, Byzantines, Mameluks, and Ottomans).
  • In 1922, the British granted limited autonomy to Egypt.  A parliamentary system was introduced which in theory would have had a recognized monarch share power with a legislature.  Islamist groups, like the Muslim Brotherhood and the moderate Wafd Party, strongly supported this democratic turn.  It was the King and the British who quashed democratic practice in this early period, suspending the legislature over ten different times in 30 years.
  • In 1952, the Free Officers Movement, led by General Gamal Abdul Nasser, overthrew the King in a coup, ending the era of British control.  Nasser, fearing for his own power in the face of groups like the Muslim Brotherhood, actively purged the opposition from Egypt.  Such undemocratic practices undermined Egypt’s new ‘republican’ constitution.
  • After Nasser died of a heart attack in 1970, Anwar Sadat came to power.  Unlike his predecessor, Sadat actively empowered Islamist groups, especially the Muslim Brotherhood, releasing hundreds of Islamist political prisoners, permitting the proliferation of mosques and religious societies and amending Egypt’s constitution to state that “the principles of Islamic Sharia are the principal source of legislation.”
  • In 1981, while attending a military parade, Sadat was assassinated by members of a violent Islamist group, Egyptian Islamic Jihad.
  • Hosni Mubarak, who was seated directly next to Sadat and injured in the attack, rose to power after Sadat’s assassination.  Mubarak’s 30-year regime was characterized by authoritarian control of the state, maintained by the exercise of martial law throughout his rule.  Mubarak received billions of dollars in US military aid; in exchange, he maintained a recognition of the Israeli-Egyptian Peace Treaty and took a hard line on the presence of radical Islamist sentiment in his nation and the world.
  • In 2011, Egypt became one of the most consequential drivers of the “Arab Spring,” a wave of pro-democracy uprisings in the Middle East. The regional protests toppled longtime rulers in Tunisia, Libya, Yemen—and ultimately president Mubarak. Thereafter, the Egyptian military prepared for new parliamentary and presidential elections.  Mohammed Morsi, the Muslim Brotherhood candidate, was elected president in 2012.
  • Mass demonstrations on the first anniversary of Morsi’s inauguration led to his removal by the military in 2013.  The interim government, led by General Abdul Fattah al-Sisi began a vigorous and violent crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood.  After resigning from the military, al-Sisi won the Presidency in 2014.  He has remained in power ever since.
  • The government of al-Sisi has seen a continuation of autocracy and crackdowns on any political opposition. The Muslim Brotherhood has been outlawed, its assets seized, leaders imprisoned. Any public affiliation with the group is considered criminal activity. After winning a second term in 2018, al-Sisi extended his political control via Constitutional referendum which allows him to maintain his rule until 2030. Additionally, al-Sisi (after winning a second term in 2018) has overseen the construction of a new capital city financed by the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative.
  • The US response to al-Sisi has to balance the needs of maintaining a longstanding ally in the region, notable for its role in combating Islamist violence and also supporting Israel, against its reputation for authoritarian repression and abuse of domestic political opponents.

Discussion Questions

  • Egypt has been ruled by many outside powers throughout history. How do you think that long legacy of foreign control affects Egyptians view of the world today?
  • Egypt has often been called “the gift of the Nile.” What role has the Nile played in shaping Egypt, both past and present?
  • Do you think there can be a democratic government in Egypt?  Why? Why not?
  • Have you ever traveled to Egypt?  If so, what do you recall about the experience?

More to Explore

  • US Congressional Research Service Report on US-Egyptian Relations:Click here
  • Reporting on Egypt from the Region Click here
  • US Congressional Research Service Report on US-Egyptian Relations: Click here

Books for Further Reading

  • Al Aswany. The Yacobian Building: A Novel. Harper Publishing, 2006. 255 pages. A portrait of contemporary Egypt which explores corruption, repression, and aspiration through the residents of a Cairo apartment building.
  • Hessler, Peter. The Buried: An Archaeology of the Egyptian Revolution. Penguin Books, 2019. 480 pages. An examination of Egypt during and after the Arab Spring. Hessler weaves his own experiences of living in Cairo with the stories of Egyptians, tracing the country’s ancient past and exploring the fractures of the contemporary state.
  • Holland, Tom. In the Shadow of the Sword: The Birth of Islam and the Rise of the Global Arab Empire (paperback). Anchor, 2013. 560 pages. This book tells the story of the creation of the Arab Empire and its subsequent impact on the current political situation in the Middle East.
  • Rutherford, Bruce K. and Jeannie Sowers. Modern Egypt: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford University Press, 2018. 232 pages. A concise history of Egypt from the 2011 Arab Spring uprising to the rise and establishment of al Sisi’s rule.
  • Wilkinson, Toby. The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2013. 656 pages. This book tells the history of Pharaonic Egypt.